"Felix White Sr.'s Introduction to Wakjankaga"

This blog is comprised of my notes, reactions, and comments to Felix White Sr.'s "Introduction to Wakjankaga" as it is printed in the seventh edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• "Stories about Wakjankaga"
• This opening tells the reader (or listener) that there will be four stories told in the story-telling session to come.
• The use of "ah" throughout this selection indicates that this is a literal transcripion ofstorytelling that creates a highly authentic feeling for the reader.
• "His Name"
• Wakjankaga earns his name by failing to save people from evil being (lines 35-38). 
• Remember that the literal translation of his name is "The Foolish One."
• Prior to this, Wakjankaga has been called Kununa, which means "the first son" (line 12).
• "His Duties"
• This tale explains a bit more specifically what Wakjankaga is supposed to have done when he came to Earth (his purpose as originally referenced in "His Name").
• "His Folly and His Travels"
• This again expounds on the original reference to Wakjankaga's job in "His Name."
• In this story, there is an explanation of how he becomes "fascinated by" people and "started to tease them" which led to his forgetting the original purpose of saving them from the evil beings (lines 8-9).
• This story ends with Wakjankaga beginning to travel.
• "His Longing"
• Wakjankaga's longing is for people and people's company. Specifically, he longs for the Winnebago people.  
• It is this longing that leads Wakjankaga to always return from his travels to the Winnebago people.

"Winnebago"

This blog entry is comprised of my notes on the headnote about the Winnebago people and their trickster tales as presented in the seventh edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• The Winnebago people are also known as the Ho-Chunks.  They are a Siovan-speaking group of people who were originally located in Wisconsin.
• They lived by hunting; fishing; planting squash, corn, and beans; and by gathering rice and berries.
• Trickster tales are very popular with the group and include two different tricksters.  
• First, there is Wakjankaga ('The Foolish One').
• There is also the Hare trickster.  

"Native American Trickster Tales"

This blog is comprised of my notes on the headnote for trickster tales as presented in the seventh edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• "trickster" - a term of somewhat vague origins used to describe a character who is "wandering, bawdy, gluttonous, and obscene" (72).  A trickster is usually male and sexually alligned, and though he is "selfish, amoral, foolish, destrcutive, and [...] given to duping others," his attitude against order is often 'new' because he is often one who helped to establish the original world order (72).  
• Trickster tales are some of the most ancient stories in Native American culture and have probably survived becasue they both instruct and please the listeners/readers.
• Culteral context enhances the enjoyment from trickster tales because they are not merely etiological.
• Like any tale in oral tradition, trickster tales may be different from one telling to another.
• The Norton editors encourage readers to try not to let their modern ideas of tricksters or the tricksters present in other cultural tales influence their readings of the Native American ones.

"From 'The Complete Works of Captain John Smith'"

This blog is comprised of my notes on and reactions to The Complete Works of Captain John Smith as presented in the seventh edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.  The text used in the anthology is the version edited by Philip L. Barbour (1986). 

Text Notes:

• "From 'The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles'"
• Opens with starvation in Virginia; Though the small folk are without food or alcohol, the President has diverted supplies for himself and thus continues to eat well.
• The lack of food, manner of living, and the hard work of building the palisade in the heat has weakened the settlers.
• May-September: Fifty people die and there is a political shift; President Wingfield is ousted and Radcliffe is made president instead.  After this shift, the surgeon general, Master Thomas Wotten is praised for saving those who are ill.
• During this period, the people ate and lived off of sturgeon and sea crabs.
• When no provisions, sturgeon, or sea crabs remain to the settlers, the natives are moved to bring "plenty of their fruits and provisions" so that there is no further wanting (58).
• The blame for this period of want is put on those who sailed the settlers to Virginia because they were ignorant of their endeavor and took five months - significantly longer than it should have take - and thus robbed the settlers of provisions once they got there while also causing them to miss the planting season.
• President Radcliffe and Captain Martin are not good about foreseeing the dangers present to the colony, so they assign the management of all outside the palisade to John Smith.
• Smith is praised as working hard to ensure that the settlers have lodgings, though neglecting any for himself. He is further exalted for heading out to find trade despite lacking language skill and skill with boats (as opposed to ships).
• The first trade is marked as being "contrary to his commission" because he puts courtesy by the wayside and fires at the Kecoughton Indians (59).  He then waits for the native warriors to arrive at which point he opens fire again to ultimately receive a peace treaty for food and other provisions in exchange for some weapons and the shot idol of the native gods.
• The provisions thus provided by John Smith along with others gathered from the towns of Warraskoyah and Chickahominy are carelessly consumed rather than saved for the inevitable future hardships.  
• Upon returning from one of his trips, John Smith learns of a plot made between Wingfield and Kendall to abandon the colony; he stops this plot from coming to fruition, and ultimately Kendall is killed.
• Smith stops a similar plot between President Radcliffe and Captain Anchor.
• As winter approaches, the natives give the settlers corn and the settlers hunt birds, fish, and fruit to eat well.
• Finally, Smith takes a group up the Chickahominy River to discover its source.  During this endeavor, he is put under siege by two-hundred 'savages' and taken prisoner for six or seven weeks during which time he almost becomes one of them, ensuring that they do not put the settlement under siege and eventually is set free.
•  Smith's experience in captivity is as follows:
• After being wounded by archers, Smith makes it to his canoe to discover his two comrades are dead; he is then seized and warmed up by his captors. 
• Smith is introduced to Opechancanough (Powhatan's younger half-brother) (King of Pamunkey), who is to be his captor.
• Natives are fascinated by Smith's compass and the way it moves.
• Just as he is to be executed, Opechancanough raises Smith's compass in the air, so Smith is untied from the tree he is bound to and taken to the village, Orapaks.
• In the village, Smith is guarded through three dances, then fed repeatedly with bread and venison so that he thinks the natives "would fat him to eat him" (62).
• Guards protect Smith from being killed by one wishing to avenge a dying son, but Smith assures his captors that he has 'water' that could save the dying man if he could return to Jamestown for it.  His release is denied, but they carry a letter to Jamestown for him and return with the medicine and an answer for Smith.
• The Native Americans do not understand the concept of writing, so they do not realize that Smith has warned Jamestown of the native plot to attack, nor do they realize how the medicine and supplies are 'magically' presented to them.
• Smith is moved from Orapaks to the Youghtanunds to the Mattapients to the Pianatanks to the Nantaughtacunds to the Onawmanients and finally to the king's village, Pamunkey.
• At Pamunkey, Smith is made part of a ceremony intended to discern whether he means the natives harm or not.
• Afterwards, Smith is fed and moved once again to Werowocomaco, where Powhatan is located.  Here, he is once again feasted and seemingly condemned to death.  Two stones are brought out and Smith expresses that he believes his head to be smashed by clubs; however, Pocahontas rescues him by placing herself between him and any who would do him harm.
• Pocahontas is cast as the heroine for the first time in this version of the story.  In previous versions, she has been a person mentioned but not given a figuring role.
• Finally, Powhatan tells Smith that he will hither forth be as a son and will be returned to Jamestown and given the land in exchange for two 'great guns' and a grindstone.
• Upon his return to Jamestown, Smith gives two cannons and a millstone to be returned to Powhatan and other gifts intended to please the women and children.
• Once he is back in Jamestown, Smith foils yet another attempt by leaders to flee the colony.  He is threatened with death for the deaths of his two companions who were killed when he was captured; however, he escapes that fate.
• Pocahontas and her attendants provide food once or twice a week to prevent the settlers from starving and creates higher spirits in the settlers by doing so.
• 'From "The Fourth Book'"
•  This section is merely a brief acknowledgement by Smith that his time in Virginia is at an end and that he's a little bitter about it: "it may be that they would judge me more charitably of my imperfections" (66).
• "From 'A Description of New England'"
• Smith opens this section by posing many questions about the virtue, honor, and praise that may come from colonizing a new land and toiling in order to succeed.
• He next questions why people would live their lives in any baser way than the one originally described as praiseworthy (i.e. that of a settler).
• Smith goes on to rally those who wish to expand their fortunes and live productive lies to explore the new lands rather than feigning ignorance to the possible greatness they could attain.
• He also expresses his own interest in rekindling his own involvement in such affairs.
• Smith tempers his praise with the warning that success is not guaranteed, particularly if bad leadership comes into play
• labor and diligence vs. vain pleasure
• gives an example of fishing to illustrate how one might provide for one's self as well as earning money/making profit
• change fouling and fishing in place of hawking and hunting
• none should grow poor in New England, Smith suggests
• "From 'New England's Trials'"
•  This selection opens with an explanation of why the massacre of settlers in March 1622 occurred.
• It was for weapons and novelty items/commodities, but Smith does not believe this should act as a deterrence for future settlers.
• Smith furthers his argument by giving examples of his own power over the Native Americans - both the laypeople and their chiefs.  Furthermore, he asserts he never suffered great hurt at the hands of the natives.
• The reiteration about the freshness of the air and the plenty of food as a reason to colonize.
• Smith asserts that he would do all that he did over again if he is given the chance.  
•  The selection ends Smith's argument by asserting the truth of what he has stated and firmly maintains his stance that many should desire to go to the colonies and "freely...adventure" with him (72).

My Thoughts:

I don't think much about the first section taken from"The General History..."  I think that in general it serves to paint Smith in a nice light and present intrigue so that people will want to read his book.  The final two sections (from the "Description of New England" and "New England's Trials") get much more at the heart of what John Smith was aiming to do with his book.  As for the third section (from "The Fourth Book"), I think that it indicates very strongly Smith's love for the New World and asserts a level of authority and veracity about his later statements about wanting to go back and being willing to do it all over again.

The final two selections of the Smith readings virtually sell the American dream (long before the American dream really existed as we know it today).   I find this particularly arguable because Smith essentially equates hard work with gain in Virginia and New England.  He presents scenarios in which people can toil, hunt, fish, and work in order to profit and elevate their situation from anything they could hope for in England.

It seems to me that Smith is merely making a sale's pitch.  His writing is overtly persuasive in the final two sections.

"John Smith"

This blog post is comprised on my notes on the "John Smith" author introduction as presented in the 7th edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• John Smith lived from 1580 until 1631.
• He played a crucial role in establishing the colony at Jamestown and ensuring its continuance under the corporate colony model that was established and favored during the 1600s.
• After an early life with multiple military experience, John Smith was named to the ruling council of Virginia by London partners in December of 1606.
• Despite being rather volatile of temper and inclined to the use of excessive force at times, Smith was voted to be president of the ruling council; this essentially made him the governor of Virginia.
• Smith was not able to garner the lasting influence that he craved from his political career in Virginia, but his published version of events surrounding his imprisonment by Powhatan and his perceived rescue by Pocahontas (he may have only been part of a ceremony inducting him as an adopted member of the tribe) created the fame and immortality he wanted when it was written 15 years after he left Virginia for good.
• Smith's writings are considered as means that bridge the gap between Virginia and New England.

"A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia"

This blog post is comprised of my notes and thoughts about the excerpt of A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia by Thomas Harriot as it appears in the seventh edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• The entire excerpt presented is based on a single thesis-like statement that Harriot makes near the beginning:  The natives are not to be feared by the English because they (the natives) only have reason to "both fear and love" those who intend to colonize their land (49).
• Harriot first describes the Native American way of dressing, their proportions, and their weaponry.
• The purpose of this, no doubt, is to illustrate how easily the English may overpower and rule over the Native Americans.
• Harriot continues with the theme of describing the ease of colonizing by describing the towns.  He notes that most are comprised of a scant ten to twelve houses and that the largest town they encountered has thirty houses.  
• Just as he drove home the lack of defense that the Native Americans have in the first section, he drives home how little the houses should be regarded by equating them to English garden arbors. 
• Fences and walls, Harriot goes on to describe, are either made of tree bark and stakes or are palisade-style - again, easy to circumvent.
• Next, the government of the Native Americans is described.  Harriot notes that the governments over towns are highly varied.  Some chief Lords govern only one town while others govern many.
• Even those who have many towns are unable to call upon more than seven or eight hundred men to fight in battles.  This is yet another weakness that Harriot points out, and he furthers the explanation of this weakness by describing that Native Americans don't fight in open battles with one another, but instead use ambush attacks at night or meet in battle in forested areas where they can fight with the aid of trees as barricades and vantage points.
• Harriot finally drives the point he's making home by asserting that any attack made by the English against the Native Americans will be an English victory.
• Next, the descriptive text goes on to inspect the poverty of the Native Americans, who are described as being very poor compared to the English.  Furthermore, they are noted for lacking the ability to discern between that which is valuable and that which is merely a trifle.  
• Harriot tempers his criticism of the Native Americans by adding that they are clever and ingenious when it comes to things that they do understand.
• This temperance is used to postulate that perhaps the natives will be easily civilized and indoctrinated to Christianity.
•  Harriot uses this as a segue-way to discuss the Native American religious beliefs.  They already have religion, he asserts before going on to explain the important aspects for comparison.
• The Native Americans believe in the following order:  many gods called 'Mantoac,' but only one chief, great God.  
• God --> lesser gods --> sun, moon, and stars (or petty gods) --> waters --> creatures --> women --> men
• The fact that there is no timeline or idea of time wrapped into this order of creation is noted.
• Gods have human shape, so the natives have idols of them called 'Kewasowok' which are placed in temples; some see the Kewasowok as gods themselves, thus creating idolatry.
• The natives believe in the immortality of the soul which either goes to Heaven or to a great pit of torment called Popogusso.
• Harriet repeats in this section stories of two men who have risen from their graves to give accounts of journeys that they have taken when their souls left their bodies and wondered before returning and granting them another chance at life.
• Harriot notes that these religious beliefs keep the people easy to govern because they do not want to be condemned to Popogusso after death.
• Because the Native Americans already have religion, Harriot presents his experience in explaining Christianity to the Wiroance priests.  He states that they desire to learn more about Christianity and doubt their own religion when presented with the alternative.  Furthermore, the natives believe that God favors the English by giving them complex items or otherwise giving them the superior knowledge to create them.
• Harriet next describes times when the Native Americans entreat the English to pray for those who are sick and/or dying or for the crops that suffer from drought.  
• Finally, there is great detail given regarding illness and death in towns where altercations had arisen between the natives and the English.  Harriot describes the way in which the natives believe the English to be punishing them for their transgressions, and they thus entreat the British to strike down their enemies.
• Though the English refuse, the enemies to the Winoans fall ill anyway, so the English are given praise and credit for the event.
• The footnote that the anthology adds lets the reader know that neither the Native Americans nor Harriot properly understand the spread of infection, making this something of a mystery to both.

 My Thoughts:

• Based on the assumed thesis that Native Americans have reason to both fear and love the English, I believe each of the topics fall into each category:
• Native should fear the English because:
• The English have superior fighting ability and weaponry.
• The English have God on their side and can kill any who slight them.
• Natives should love the English because:
• The English can civilize them.
• The English can magically eliminate their enemies.
• The English can provide the natives with complex technologies and trinkets.
• Based on the fact that this descriptive work is known to be propaganda, it is easy to see the underlying purpose:  Virginia will be easy to settle because the natives cannot beat us on any front.
• This idea is heavily supported in what Harriot says, but the author headnote informs the reader that he omitted a lot of the difficulties that the first group of settlers encountered with the natives.
• I can only think that the propaganda-ish book must have met with some sense of humor when it was published after the second Roanoke colony simply vanished.

"Thomas Harriot"

This blog is comprised of my notes on the author head-note on Thomas Harriot as it appears in the 7th edition of The Norton Anthology of American Literature Volume A.

Text Notes:

• lived 1560-1621
• graduate of Oxford University
• Harriot was probably the person who trained the men in Sir Walter Raleigh's first Roanoke expedition in navigational skills.
• He may have gone on the first expedition with Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, but he definitely went as a naturalist on the second in 1585.
• Harriot collaborated with John White (painter) to study the flora and fauna of the New World.
• From April of 1585 until July of 1586, Harriot spent his time studying and collecting as a naturalist.  During this time of study by Harriot and White, Roanoke was experiencing political unrest and having poor relations with the Native Americans on the island.
• Harriet's descriptive work A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land includes information on the plants, animals, and Native Americans, but it fails to report on the serious events that occured between the Roanoke settlers and the Roanoke Indians.
• Despite this, he does touch on Ralph Lane's (Lane was the second commander-in-chief of the colony) 'fierce' dealings with Chief Wingina and his people
• He also gives evidence that European disease had begun to destroy the Native American people/population
• Harriot's descriptive text lacks candor because it was written at Sir Walter Raleigh's request during a time that a second colony was being set up in John White's command.  In other words, it was propaganda to gain support for the second colony.
• On a silly note, despite the original intent of the work, it was not published until after the "Lost Colony" had occurred, thus serving as pretty poor propaganda.